ECT+304+SUBJECT+METHODS+-+GEOGRAPHY


 * MT. KENYA UNIVERSITY **
 * APRIL 2014 GROUP **


 * ECT 304 – SUBJECT METHODS (GEOGRAPHY) **
 * Dr. Kennedy Obiero - 0722551343 **
 * TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION **

 - This unit equip equips Geography teachers with appropriate techniques of teaching Geography in High School and other institutions.

 - It deals with methods and approaches used in teaching Geography.

 - Be aware that each area of specialization has its own techniques though some are similar.

 - In this course, we will share lot of knowledge and techniques with other areas of specialization such as Psychology, Philosophy among others.


 * CLASSES OF GEOGRAPHERS ** – we have two classes of Geographers

 (a) **Geographers with content** - those who have learned **Geography content** from lower levels to the highest levels (primary to university). Some of them are reputable Geographers in teaching (How do they teach?).

 - Suppose you did not train as a teacher but somehow you landed in a teaching job, how will you teach?

 - Some of the Geographers have landed jobs in government (physical planners, settlement officers, urban planners among others).

 - Do they require teaching methodology?

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) **Geographers with content and methodology** – Those that have learned Geography content right from primary to the University/Diploma level in some cases they have been classmates in group (a). They have an element of teaching methods for Geographers.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> In case two, content is integrated with methodology.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **NB** – A teacher’s teaching methods will motivate or demotivate/discourage students from enrolling in Geography.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> In Kenya, enrolments in Geography have been declining. What is the problem?


 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Nature and Content of Geography **


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Definition of Geography __**

· **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Geo **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> – Greek word meaning the **earth**

· **//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">graphia //**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> – meaning to **write/describe**

· **//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Literally means – //**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> descriping of the earth/writing about the earth**//.//**

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">No total consensus on the definition of Geography.

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Geography has diverse content leading to conflicting definitions, concepts and aims.

· **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Geography is a science of place/space **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (spatial characteristics). Geography as a science deals with description and explanation of the spatial distribution of physical and human phenomena and the inter-relationships or interactions among phenomena and human beings.

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">This definition leads to the following **Geography concepts**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) **Space** – mainly concerned with location in terms of **location** (latitude and longitude. This is **absolute location**. Direction and distance can be used to describe location. In **relative location** – in relation to other factors are considered e.g. time.
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">GEOGRAPHY CONCEPTS **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) **Phenomena**: Features in/on the earth’s surface (natural or human). Landforms, climate, vegetation, soils, settlements, transport networks,

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Looks at the spatial variability of phenomena and how they affect man.

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Looks at interaction among phenomena.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) **Distribution –** main feature of Geographical study. This distinguishes Geography from other disciplines. Examines spatial arrangement of phenomena and reasons for the arrangement.

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Geographer examines **pattern**s with three distinct patterns

· **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Linear pattern **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> – roads, railways,

· **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Points/nodes **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> – towns/factories/wells

· **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Surfaces (areas) **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> – areal features e.g., lakes, forests, among others.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) **Interaction/Inter-relationship** – A Geographer does not study phenomena in isolation but how phenomena interaction with each other and human beings.

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Interdependence of phenomena

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Inter-relations (areal associations).

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">A number of elements influence phenomena.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Conclusion** – The items distinguish a Geographer from other scientists who may be handling similar phenomena.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Why Teach Geography**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> - Addresses the aims/goals of teaching Geography.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> - Addresses the objectives of teaching Geography

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> - The long-term objectives for teaching Geography include:

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) **Enables learners to understand themselves and others**. E.g. why do people in India prefer to eat rice while Kenyans prefer maize meal?

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Geography highlights a number of problems and possibilities in different environments. A number of elements influence phenomena.

· **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Potentials **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> and **limitation**s in various environments contributes to **international understanding** and **unity**.

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Geography fosters **interdependence** among people by explaining the spatio-temporal variation of resources**.**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) **Teaching Special Skills** – Skills gained through Geography teaching include:

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Observation especially during fieldwork. Critically observe phenomena as it occurs.

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Data collection skills during field work.

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Map reading skills

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Aerial photo interpretation

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) **Purposive use of leisure time** – Geography students trained to see and read meaning from the landscape

· <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Observe and interpret landscape intelligently.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) **Thinking skills** – Geography teaching cultivate culture of thinking among students. This takes students beyond the cognitive domain (merely acquiring knowledge). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The __problem solving approach__ in Geography is an example. E.g., using the concentric model, recommend appropriate land use in Nairobi.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(e) Geography tackles the big issue of **environmental responsibility.** This necessary in a world where there is much concern over human threats to the environment.
 * || **<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Summary of objectives for teaching Geography in High School **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (a) Inculcate knowledge of geographic factors.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (b) Foster ability for critical thinking

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (c) Promote ability to read, interpret and make maps

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (d) Develop habits of observation

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (e) Promote international understanding

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (f) Promote conservation of natural resources

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (g) Foster ability to make worthwhile use of leisure time. ||

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> ** Explain how the teaching of Geography contributes to the attainment of the goal for education **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(1) Education should **promote international consciousness** – cultivate positive attitudes to other countries/international community. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Through teaching global geography, understanding of other countries is possible. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(2) Education aims to **promote and develop cultural heritage**. There exist a variety of culture that needs to be understood.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (3) **Promote national unity** – For Kenya people belong to different ethnic groups, race and religion. Education for mutual respect and living together. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Education should enable people live and interact as Kenyans. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(4) **Promote national development –** Education aims to meet the economic and social needs of National development. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) __Economic needs__ – provide citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise (domestic skilled labour) for the growing economy. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) __Social needs__ – cultivate positive attitudes and relationships among learners. Necessary for modernization. Assist youth adapt to changing environment. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(5) **Individual development** – education offers opportunities for the development of individual talents and personality. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Develop potentials and abilities · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Encourage good moral and religious values · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Help students to be self disciplined, self reliant and integrated citizens.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(6) **Social equality** – Education promote social equality. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Provide equal opportunities for both sexes (male and female, men and women, boys and girls). · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Give opportunities for collective service. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Exercise** – This is a group discussion –

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Q** Examine how the teaching of Geography in a country of your choice promotes the goals of education.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">** TOPIC 2 – GEOGRAPHY CURRICULUM AND SYLLABI ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) Document that define activities which take place in a school environment. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) Document that shows types of learning expected to take place in different subjects e.g., Geography, Maths, History among others. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) It involves a number of aspects interacting with each other – aims, objectives, content, teaching strategies and evaluation. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) Geography curriculum would be a document showing;

> The content of Geography e.g., units > Objectives of each Geography unit or topic > The teaching strategies > Evaluation of the course(s). > > <span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">ALL THESE ASPECTS INTERACT IN SCHOOL/LEARNING ENVIRONMENT > > <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (Explain the items). > > **Geography syllabus** > > - This is an outline/brief statement of the main parts of the course as would be taught by a teacher > - A document outlining what is to be taught in a given class in a given time. > - It outlines the content, concepts and principles to be taught in Geography. > - Outlines the content for the different levels of learners as required by the curriculum and examination council. > - Geography syllabus exposes students/learners to systematic study of both physical and human aspects of Geography. > - In Kenya two syllabi exist > (ii) The KNEC syllabus classifies the topics to be examined in Papers 1 and 2. As would be examined by the examination council. > > ** Factors to be considered when coming up with a Geography Syllabus ** > **(i)** **Aims and objectives** of teaching Geography must be considered. > (ii) **Concepts, principles, facts and skills** must be carefully selected**.** Facts change with time. > (iii) Consider variety of topics from the physical and human environment. Topics should be arranged from the simplest to the most challenging. > (iv) Materials – syllabus should allocate materials for teaching both local and the wider Geography. > (v) Time factor – Each content should be covered within a given period. It should allow for revision. > (vi) Reference books – provide a list of suitable books. > > ** Types of Geography Syllabi ** > There are four types Geography syllabi > (a) **Regional Syllabi** – Tends to cover Global Geography using a **regional approach**. Start with the country/district, country, continent and then world Geography. > Each region is systematically studied in terms of physical and human aspects. > Interactions between human and physical aspects in different regions are studied. > Themes include; vegetation, soils, agriculture, fishing, industry among others. > Examples for each theme are drawn from different parts of the world to ensure a global coverage. > (c) **Concentric Syllabus** – Study topics are covered at different levels. > Coverage starts with the local level, then national level and finally global level. > At each level, physical and human aspects of Geography are covered. > (d) **Concept/Topic based syllabus** – broad category of topics are used. > It is mainly used when Geography taught integrated among other subjects or areas of specialization. > One such broad topic is trade with concepts such as containerization, hinterland, development among others. > (Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each syllabus) > > ** SPECIFIC METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY IN AND OUTSIDE CLASS ** > **Teaching Method** – overall approach of organizing, planning and delivering a Geography lesson to achieve stated objectives. > Broadly divided into two: > (i) **Teacher centered methods/Expository methods** – the teacher is the main source of knowledge 70-80% of the work and students doing less than 25%. > o Students are passive recipients of knowledge. > (ii) **Student centered/participatory methods** – The student is the master and the teacher is the referee. > o The learner plays a central role > o The teacher is a supervisor > o Students do 60-70% of the work. > (a) **The level of the learner** – methods of teaching Form I students may vary from those of teaching Form IV. > § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Respective levels of students have different abilities. > § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Even in the same class, abilities may not be the3 same thus calling for a variety of teaching methods. > (b) **Target population –** The group of students a teacher is going to teach may influence the choice of a teaching method and examples given. Think of children, youth and adults. > (c) **Class Size –** Some classes are too large while others are small. Interactive/participatory methods are good for small classes. Lecture method is for instance in teaching large numbers. > (d) **Available resources/physical facilities e.**g., books, equipment, maps among others. Incase of limited resources, teacher centered methods serve well. With enough resources, use learner centered methods. > <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Introduction – A map is a representation to scale of all or part of the earth’s surface on a paper or any other drawing media such as a tracing paper, piece of cloth among others. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Communication of Geographical material is incomplete without the use of a single maps or maps. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Spatial information is best communicated through the use of maps.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Objectives of teaching Geography
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(i) Syllabus provided by the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). This defines what is to be taught in each class.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(i) Syllabus provided by the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). This defines what is to be taught in each class.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) **Systematic Syllabus** – Uses a **thematic approach** in teaching Geography.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">** Factors to consider when choosing a teaching method **
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">TOPIC – USE OF MAPS AS TEACHING RESOURCES IN GEOGRAPHY **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Why use maps** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) Maps are used to show distribution of Geographical phenomena. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) Maps can be used to show the relationship among Geographical phenomena <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) Maps can be used to identify Geographical problems for further investigation <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) They can also be used for descriptive and statistical analyses

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(Discuss these points at your own time for details) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Types of maps** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**//(i)//** **//Cadastral maps//** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– These are large scale maps also known as plans. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– They show full details e.g., boundaries of fields and subdivisions. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– Town planning maps are examples. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**//(ii)//** **//Topographical Maps//** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Also large scale maps though not as big a cadastral maps <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Depict relief, drainage, vegetation, crops, settlement and transport routes among other physical and human phenomena. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Some are 1:50000, 1:250000, 1:100000 among other scales <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- They are used for map reading, analysis and interpretation

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **//(iii)//** **//Atlas Maps//** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Small in scale than cadastral and topographical maps <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- They show large areas such as country, continents or the whole world on a single page. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- However, they have less details than cadastral and topographical maps <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Show boundaries, roads, railways, towns, natural features, crops, mineral deposits among others <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**//(iv)//** **//Geological Maps//** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Show different types of rocks and their distribution as well as evolution <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**//(v)//** **//Weather and climatic maps//** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- They deal mainly with temperature, air pressure, winds and rainfall among other climatic elements.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Read and make notes on wall maps and the advantages of each of the types of maps mentioned. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**//(vi)//** **//Wall maps//** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**//As a Geography teacher, what are the stages in the study of maps?//** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- There are three stages in the study of maps <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) **Map reading** – This is the most basic level. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Involves finding out which features are found on maps and which part of the map. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Make use of grid references, contours, direction and even bearing.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **(b)** **Map Interpretation** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- This stage involves making decisions why certain features occur where they are. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Map reading precede map interpretation

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **(c) Map Analysis** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- This involve evaluation of the interpretations made about the map features

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Maps can be used to development a variety of skills in learners. These include but are not limited to: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) Skill of calculating distances and areas of different scales <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) Skill of giving and following direction <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) Locating places using latitudes and longitudes <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) Using thematic maps to recognize characteristics of human and natural phenomena. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(e) Skill of using different types of maps e.g., topographical, climatic, geological among other maps. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(f) Searching for relationships among features.
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">EXPLAIN HOW YOU CAN USE MAPS IN SKILLS DEVELOPMENT **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Also read <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">WWW.atlapedia.com

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**IN GEOGRAPHY**
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">USE OF PHOTOGRAPHS AS TEACHING RESOURCES **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Introduction** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Pictures and photographs are indispensable tools for illustrating Geographical facts. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**What is a picture**? – is a painting, drawing or sketch of something. Many Geographical features can be illustrated in pictures. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**What is a photograph**? This is a data source obtained using a camera and film. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- It is a type of picture obtained by using a camera and a light sensitive material i.e., the film.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **The Significance/Importance of using pictures and photographs in teaching Geography** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(i) Pictures and photographs make the study of Geography real. Pictures and photographs bring reality to the learners as they are not in the field. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(ii) Learning of skills of observation and analysis are developed. Interpretation skills are also developed. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(iii) When pictures and photographs are used in variety, they attract and sustain the students’ attention. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(iv) Pictures and photographs illustrate which are unfamiliar to students.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Types of Pictures and Photographs** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- For the purpose of teaching Geography, pictures and photographs can be divided into three categories:

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **(i)** **Pictures and photographs viewed in groups** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- The photographs show the same features for all groups. If the features are different, then the groups can exchange the photographs. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- This done when the pictures/photographs are not adequate foe every member in class. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Each group has a secretary who records the group’s observations <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**(ii)** **Pictures and Photographs viewed by the whole class** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- They are large pictures or those projected. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Questions about the pictures/photographs are centrally set. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- The teacher asks learners questions who provide responses. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**(iii)** **Pictures and Photographs viewed by individuals** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- These pictures/photographs may be found in textbooks <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Students view photographs individually <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Viewing may also be done in pairs if the books are few.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Procedure of using photographs and pictures in Teaching Geography** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(i) Introduce the picture – e.g., this is a picture/photograph of Mt. Longonot. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(ii) Learners should be directed to the most significant feature in the photograph. The students should make a list of features observed from photographs. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(iii) Students should be asked to describe and explain the features on photographs. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- The pattern and distribution of features on photographs should be observed. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- In talking about maps, terms such as: Background, left background, mid background, right background etc should be used. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(iv) Examine relationships among phenomena. Inferences should be based on observation.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**When and where do we use Geographical Pictures** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">a) Pictures and photographs can be used at the **//beginning, during and at the end//** of the lesson. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Beginning to provide background knowledge for the lesson. Enable learners to visualize the subject of the lesson. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- During the lesson to illustrate lesson content/concepts <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- End of the lesson to illustrate what has been taught.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **//b)//** **//Whole Geography Period//** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Whole Geography period – This is especially regarding large photographs. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- This can be displayed and used during the whole period e.g., for the case of stereoscopic viewing in the university.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> c) **//During the end term of the term in Geography examinations//** – after exposing the students to knowledge of <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> pictures and photographs, they can be examined at the end of the term on photographs to test skills such as observation, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">analysis and interpretation.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Limitations of Using Pictures and Photographs in Teaching Geography** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) Some sensations may not be shown on photographs e.g., cold, heat and smell unless through the imagination of the teacher and students. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) Pictures and photographs present part of the information. Students need field study to some places to see the phenomena on photographs practically. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) Pictures and photographs show as they appear at a given time. However, both physical and human phenomena change over time.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">** TESTING AND EVALUATION ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- After or during the teaching of Geography, students need to be assessed on the Geography content and concepts. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**TEST** – A test is a tool containing questions determining whether the learners understood the content and concepts. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**EVALUATION** – This is the making of a qualitative and quantitative judgement about the learner or the learning process. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Quantitative Qualitative**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> 90-100% Excellent <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">80-89% V. Good <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">70-79% Good <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">60-69% Satisfactory <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">50-59% Average/Fair <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">40-49% Pass <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">0-39% Fail

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Reasons for testing and evaluating learners** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) Self evaluation – enable the learner to know whether he/she has understood facts. This motivates the learners. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) Feedback – Teachers, administration, guardians, employers, sponsors among others need to know how learners <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> perform in exam.For others this may influence their aid/support to learners. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) Certification – Testing and evaluation is used to give certificates to learners e.g., KCSE, KCPE, Diplomas, Degrees among others. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) Review of teaching strategies – Good performance motivates both teachers and learners. Poor performance calls for remedial measures. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(e) Placement – Through testing and evaluation a decision is made as to who goes where – university (public sponsorship), private sponsorship, medical colleges, and polytechnics among others.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Formative and Summative Evaluation** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Evaluation can either be formative or summative. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**(i)** **Formative Evaluation** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- This is progressive testing <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- May be weekly or monthly <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Mid-terms tests <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Judgment is made while the learning process is in progress. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Assessment during teaching practice is a good example. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Giving of CATS and assignment before the end of the term or semesterster <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**(ii)** **Summative Evaluation** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Testing and evaluating learners at the end of the term/year/course/semester or program of study. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- The national examinations are an example in Kenya and other countries. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- It helps in promotion <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Helps in the selection of learners for a course or program <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Determines the level of attainment

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Types of Tests** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**(i)** **Essay type of tests** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- This is a test that tests whether learners have understood a topic. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Students write comprehensively about a question. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- It requires a lot of details <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Terms used include: discuss, examine, describe, compare and contrast, give an account of among others. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Advantages** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Promotes organization of thoughts <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Tests students’ ability to express ideas <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Ease to make/construct <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- The learners provides a lot of details <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- It is like an open discussion

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Disadvantages** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Questions are too broad leading to lengthy answers <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Few topics can be tested <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Affected by subjective marking. Student has his/her own view and the teacher may have a different view. Difficult to mark objectively. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Marking is affected by physical factors e.g., time, number of scripts, fatigue, handwriting etc. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- It is time consuming in answering and marking. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- There is high variation/deviation among markers

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **(ii)** **Objective tests** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- These are test that require short exact answers. They include; <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) Filling in blank spaces <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) Multiple choice questions <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) True/False questions <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) Matching

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> - This eliminates subjectivity on the part of the examiner. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Advantages** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- It encourages wide coverage of content <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Challenges the learners to study all topics/read widely <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Fairness in marking. Removes teachers’ subjectivity <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- It is ease to mark. No special skill required/needed. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- The marking is always reliable.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Disadvantages** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Learners fail to develop expressive ability <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- No critical thinking/creative ability is nurtured. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- They are difficult to construct <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Divergent views not entertained

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Academic Integrity in Testing and Evaluation** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Introduction <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– The problem of academic dishonesty affects testing and evaluation eroding the integrity of our examinations. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– As a teacher, you should encourage your learners to be honest in examinations. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– The teacher should also be objective in marking <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– No favoritism to some candidates while discriminating others. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– Strict supervision should be encouraged <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">– The syllabus should be completed before testing and evaluating the learners.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Q. **Discuss the causes and remedies of academic dishonest in Geography examinations.**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> ** USE OF MODERN TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Some of the advantages of this advancing technology include but are not limited to: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) It eliminates the question of distance (Geographical barriers). I can reach my students from whatever part of the world. The material I <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">gave you can be accessed in any part of the world whether in Oslow, Copehagen, New York, Beijing, Kisumu city, Mombasa, Eldoret or <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Dar es Salaam among others locally and abroad. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) Use of e-mode or e-learning can help reduce risks of traveling from one point to other both by students and lecturers. You can prepare and access the material <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> even from your bedroom as long as you have internet! <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) Multiple access – the e-material can be accessed by many students/people at the same time as long as the internet and electricity is available and working. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) The material on the e-platform can be updated. If you as the teacher come across new material, this can be added to the existing one. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The existing document can be edited (changes brought) and updated. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(e) With more training and illustration more people in different areas of the world can contribute to a topic continuously and simultaneously. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">This is not possible outside e-mode. If done, it is expensive requiring additional facilities. Remember President Mwai Kibaki launched e-mode <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> of learning that included teleconferencing where you the person on the screen and the other person is seeing you on the screen. You can <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> communicate with each other ask questions and get responses instantly.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Q – What are advantages of using e-learning/advances in modern technology __**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">? From your practical experience during this unit, did you learn anything?

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">While this technology is inevitable, it has other limitations which as teachers you must be aware. These include:
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">LIMITATIONS OF THE TECHNOLOGY **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (i) The equipment required is expensive though the costs are gradually coming down. Modern speed computers with large memories are required for <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">both temporary storage (RAM) and long term storage (ROM). Initial cost be high unless the school finds a financier/donor. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(ii) It is also important to be aware about the trained labourforce required. Having computer facilities is not enough. Life ware is required sometimes <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> unavailable, less trained or just expensive to compensate. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(iii) While the cost of computer hardware is coming down every day, the cost of software still remains high forcing many of us to life on illegally copied <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">software (pirated programs) that are sometimes unstable to work with and have their own problems. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(iv) Without electricity, the implementation of e-mode of learning in many of the schools seems far from reality. The use of generators, their exhaust <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> fumes and cost of fuel all make e-mode far from being everyday life in manyparts of the Republic of Kenya. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (v) Convincing the general public who are the majority to adapt e-mode of teaching still remains a challenge. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(vi) In our class of ECT 212 and of course many administrators and of course in reality, you can never replace the physical teacher by a machine <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> known as the computer and associated programs and peripherals. You can only supplement the teacher but not substitute. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(vii) The teacher is not only there for knowledge but also for modeling. How the students model the computer?

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> In conclusion, the advances in technology are very valuable in the teaching of Geography. Let Geographers not ignore. Understand its potentials and <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> limitations before implementation.


 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">THE SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON PLAN **
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(i) The Scheme of Work **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Introduction **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">A scheme of work is a clear and orderly statement of the work that the teacher plans to cover over a term or a year.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">It breaks the syllabus into pieces/manageable topics.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">It shows how the items in the syllabus will be taught/covered.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">It represents the distribution of the syllabus items over the year.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">a) Number of Geography Topics for the class – This is based on the syllabus. The number of periods in week should be considered. Geography in <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Form I and II may be having 3 lessons per class while Forms III and IV may have 4 per week. This must be considered when scheming. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">b) Explore available sources of information – books, pictures, maps, magazines, diagrams. Make resources that are not available. You can also innovative. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">c) Break the syllabus topics into lesson topic which must have at least two instructional objectives.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Factors to consider when preparing a good scheme of work **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The following are some of the common features of a scheme of work (for more detils read the Unit Book pages 28-32).
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">FORMAT OF A SCHEME OF WORK **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**(1)** **Administrative Details** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Also known as preliminary details <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- **Name of the School** _ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- **Class** - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- **Name** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- **Registration Number** __

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(a) **Week** – Week 1 this is assumed to be the first week of the term followed by Week 2 among others. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(b) **Period** – Geography is allocated 3 periods for Forms I and II and 4 lessons for Form 3 and 4. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(c) **Lesson Topic** – Syllabus is broken into sub-topics. You have include a column for sub-topic. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(d) **Objectives** – Each lesson should have one or two instructional objectives (objectives which are measurable and can be achieved by the end of the lesson). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**e.g., by the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(2) **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **Main Columns of the Scheme of Work**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> **(i)** State the three causes of volcanic activity <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(ii) Describe the formation of any four features formed by volcanic activity. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Objectives sets what the teacher intends to achieve by the end of the lesson. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- The objectives should be balanced covering – cognitive, psychomotor, affective and social development aspects. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">- Should also consider Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (e) **Methods of Approach** – State the methods you will use in teaching the topic. Methods can be **student centered** (preferred) such as group work, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> field work, laboratory, debate, interview, role play, brainstorming, project among other. The teacher does little work. Most work (80%) is done by <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> students. The teach only guides students/acts as a referee. There are methods which are teacher centered (where the teacher does upto 80%). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Students are recipient of knowledge e.g., lecture, demonstration, questioning among others. NB – USE A VARIETY OF <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">METHODS ** INCLUDING STIMULUS VARIATIONS **. THE MORE THE SENSES OF THE STUDENT YOU ARE ABLE TO <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">USE THE BETTER).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (f) **Teaching aids and Reference** – It is advisable to use teaching resources in your class though this might be limited in some schools. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Be innovative as much as you can. The resources include – atlases, maps of all types, photographs, diagrams, chalkboard, guest speakers, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">radio/Tvs, encylopaedia, globe, instruments, samples/specimen among others. Use variety again. – The teacher needs to select what is suitable. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(USE AT LEAST TWO RESOURCES AND TWO REFERENCE BOOKS). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(g) **Remarks Column** – This is the column for making comments about problems/unforeseen circumstances that may interfere with teaching e.g., <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">sports, assembly taking too long, visitors came to the school etc. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">**Conclusion** – The scheme of work is a prerequisite in teaching.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> It takes a lot of time to prepare but once in place it can be used for several years with some reviews/corrections.

- A lesson plan is a carefully thought outline of what is going to be taught in a given class room. - It guides the teacher on what is is to be covered within the 40 minutes lesson in class. The length of the lesson varies from one country to another with some 45 minutes, 35 minutes or even 50 minutes. Here we use 40 minutes. - A well prepared lesson plan demonstrates that the teacher was prepared for the class to meet the students. - The structure of the lesson plan may vary from one institution to another but the main features are:
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">LESSON PLAN **

University/College ___________________ Ref. No. _____________ Name ______________________________ School _______________ Date _______________________________ Time ________________ Form _____________________________ Class ________________ Subject _____________________________
 * 1) **Administrative details**

- Review the previous lesson - Use preferably questioning method
 * 1) **Introduction 5 Minutes**

- This is the progress of the lesson and should continue for 30 minutes
 * 1) **Lesson Development 30 minutes**

- Summary of the main points - Assignment
 * 1) **Conclusion 5 Minutes**


 * DETAILED DISCUSSION OF THE LESSON PLAN**

- As you enter into class, do not start teaching immediately (avoid using machine gun approach). - Let the students settle first - Blackboard should be cleaned - Prayer should be given depending on the culture of the school - Given a story if you have related to the topic - Refer to current events in the news papers and other media
 * 1) **1.** **Introduction 5 minutes**

- Quick review of the previous topic (5 minutes) - Introduction of review content (10 minutes) - Group Discussion (10 minutes) - Assignment/Exercise (5 minutes)
 * 1) **2.** **Lesson Development 30 Minutes**

- Provide the summary of the lesson - Ask questions to determine whether students have understood - Some of the questions should be prepared well in advance
 * 1) **3.** **Conclusion 5 Minutes**

- Home work or assignment be given. - This will engage the learners/students while the teacher is away. - It may also help to prepare the learners for the next lesson
 * 1) **4.** **Homework/Assignment**

- If some colleges/universities/institutions, the teacher is required to evaluate the teaching and the learners’ understanding. Did you learners understand based on your observation? - This helps in the preparation of the next lesson.
 * 1) **5.** **Evaluation**

The following details should be included: Name: Ref. No.: School: Form: Date: Subject: Topic: Time: Objective(s) - Review of previous lesson || - Students answer questions || - Teacher || - Introduce and teach new content || - Answering Questions - Drawing maps - Drawing graphs - Taking notes - Discussion - Debate || - Maps - Books - Photographs - Diagrams - Charts || - Summary of lesson - Ask Questions - Give assignment || - Students asking questions - Students answering questions - Students take down assignments. (Activities should preferable be student centred) || - Book and Page for the assignment ||
 * One Format of a Lesson Plan (Modify according to your University)**
 * Time/Duration || Content || Learning Activities || Resources ||
 * 5 Minutes || **Introduction**
 * 30 Minutes || **Lesson Development**
 * 1) 1.
 * 2) 2.
 * 5 Minutes || **Conclusion**


 * Discussion of the Format**
 * 1) 1. **Lesson Topic** – This is the tile of the lesson

- Instructional objectives required - What the teacher intends to achieve by the end of the lesson - Stated in behavioural terms expected of the learners
 * 1) **2.** **Objectives of the lesson**

- Arranging and presenting lesson material in a systematic manner - Sets the mood of the lesson - Should be interesting to attract the student’s attention - Revise the previous lesson - Use question and answer method - Narrate a story where necessary - Avoid machine gun-approach
 * 1) **3.** **Lesson Presentation**
 * (a)** **Introduction**

- Core of the lesson - Here, the objectives of the lesson are achieved - Breaks the lesson into steps one leading to the other
 * (b)** **Body/Lesson Development**

- Last step in the lesson - Provides lesson summary - Summary should reflect the stated objectives.
 * Lesson Conclusion**

- Students should actively participate during the lesson in a variety of activities. - Students should – read, take notes, draw diagrams, answer questions among others. - The activities should hold the attention of the learners throughout the lesson. - They should sustain student interest in the lesson.
 * Student Activities/Learning Activities**

- Approximate time for each piece of activities 40 Minutes - Use methods that encourage full participation of the learners - Rarely use lecture method. - Use illustrations
 * Timing of the Lesson**
 * 1) 1. Introduction 5 Minutes
 * 2) 2. Body 30 Minutes
 * 3) 3. Summary 5 Minutes
 * Teaching Methods**

- These are notes as lesson progresses - These should be students’ answers or teacher’s explanations - The help to build the conclusion. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">TECHNOLOGY REDUCES GEOGRAPHICAL BARRIERS IN EDUCATION BECAUSE THE MATERIAL(S) CAN BE <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> ACCESSED FROM ANY PART OF KENYA OR THE WORLD.
 * Summary Notes on Chalkboard**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">REMEMBER,
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">“THERE IS NO BETTER BAGGAGE ON A JOURNEY THAN MUCH KNOWLEDGE” Norwegian saying. **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">EDUCATION IS WHAT REMAINS AFTER YOU HAVE FORGOTTEN WHAT YOU WERE TAUGHT IN CLASS OR LEARNED FROM BOOKS. OBIERO ON 21/4/2014 **


 * WISH YOU ALL THE BEST AS YOU ACCLIMATISE WITH THE TECHNOLOGY. **


 * COURTESY OF: Dr. Kennedy Obiero**